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19th Century Russia I. Russia’s Peculiar and Persistent Dilemma: What is to
be done? The West a) long historical movement away from dogma and authority toward increasing individual autonomy (Renaissance, Reformation, Enlightenment, Liberalism) b) results in a dynamic society, economic expansion and powerful states Russian Handicaps Tartar Yoke 12th to 16th centuries and The problem of size and The problem of defense Results in a society in which dogma and authority are essential Forms: Political-autocracy, Social-feudalism, Economic-manorialism, Religious-orthodoxy The Russian “Social Contract” tsar/nobility/peasants The Dilemma Western Style Change will lead to a) chaos and or b) invasion No Western style change will lead to more backwardness II. Dealing with the Dilemma—Part I A. Peter the Great 1689-1725 Military necessity drove Peter to adopt some Western techniques BUT military necessity also required that Peter increase the authority of the state Table of Ranks Serfdom B. Catherine the Great 1762-1796 New “Social Contract” liberates the nobility from mandatory state service Impact of the Enlightenment BUT Pugachev Revolt 1773-1774 and French Revolution result in Serfdom tightened C. Alexander I 1801-1825 Liberal tutors and advisors BUT French Rev and Napoleon Conservatism III. Dealing with the Dilemma – Part 2 rise of the intelligentsia: - Peculiar situation of reformists: they are
from the noble class, yet they agitate for reform of serfdom: against their
interests Nicholas I 1825-1855 Decembrist Revolt 1825 - An amateurish farce, a little tiny blip, but the first
attempt at revolution. Every revolutionary afterwards looked to the
Decembrists as their forefathers Official Response Conservatism Official Ideology: “Autocracy,
Orthodoxy, Nationality” - Nicholas’ goal is to preserve the Russia
that he inherited in 1825 (which defeated Napoleon). The Slavophiles
think that this bureaucracy that has been imposed on them was imported from
the West. “Autocracy, Orthodoxy and Nationalism”: new emphasis on being Russian, so the huge numbers of ethnic minorities went through Russification. “Third Section”Censorship
Opposition Decembrist Inspired Opposition Ideologies:
Westernizer v Slavophile Reformers These people are not really radical: they are mostly debating.
Their actions have little effect on Russia as a whole. Moderate in Method Decisive Influence: Decembrist Revolt 1825 “Fathers” Pushkin 1799-1837 Gogol 1809-1852 Belinsky 1811-1848
Alexander II 1855-1881
Crimean War 1853-1856 War is lost to Britian and the Ottomans, and public opinion has begun to change towards belief that something must be done to reform the autocracy and the class hierarchy. Official Response Autocratic
Liberalism
Emancipation of Serfs (1862) Has Alexander II really set the serfs free?
Goal: What is to be done so that the country retains its place as a great power in its contest with industrializing enemies?
Paradox: Free the Serfs and Begin the Process of Building a Middle Class (but RiskChaos) vs.
Maintain as Much Control as You Can and Continue to Squeeze the
Peasants for All They are Worth (The Traditional Tyrannical
Strategy)
Zemstvo
Reforms, etc Liberals believe that this is a very good thing. They want the end
of autocracy and the creation of a constitutional government of laws and
institutions to stimulate economic development . Opposition Liberal v Nihilist v Populist (radicalized) Liberals were thrilled to see the Tsar finally emancipate the serfs, and they regarded this momentous move as a first step towards the development of a constitutional government.
But
MANY reformers were profoundly disappointed and decided that liberals
were in league with the tsar whose cosmetic reforms hardly addressed
the continuing injustice. A new group of radical reformers emerged,
inspired by the example of Belinsky and educated in Western Socialism.
The next generation would be characterized by their Nihilism.
Nihilists
believed that the present government and social structure should be
swept away completely. They did not know or care what would replace it.
Anything would be better. The Nihilists were radical
materialists. They did not believe in theories. They reject
generalizations. They thought that everything that had been created to
that point was bogus nad
needed to be overturned.
The
Populists (descendants of the Slavophiles) believed that the peasants
were the future of Russia and their traditional method of organizing
their vilages around the concept of the mir (or commune) would provide
a model for the future Russian state after the Tsar was
overthrown. The Populists were anarchists. They believed that the
central government should be dismantled. Power should only be
held at the local level: in the village communes or emerging labor
unions. As the century progressed, though, they became more and
more violent. Decisive Influence: 1848 1848: All the liberal revolutions in Europe were squelched. What
is to be done? Not liberalism anymore! Many members of the intelligentsia
became more skeptical about the liberal position. “Sons” Turgenev 1818-1883 Dostoevsky 1821-1881
Alexander III 1881-1894 Conservative Modernizer Decisive Influence:Assassination of the Tsar Liberator- killed by populist terrorists, members of the People’s Will. Official Response Conservatism Alexander III set out to complete the Russification of the empire: forcing all citizens to learn the language and adopt Russian manners. He persecuted minorities, particularly the Jews. He supported ultra-conservative political organizations, such as the anti-Semitic Black Hundreds to fight the revolutionary movement and foment nationalism. He weakened the power of the zemstvos and appointed land captains beholden only to the crown to administer the lands. Alexander III encouraged the secret police to hunt down radicals, particularly the People’s Will. In 1888 the secret police captured and executed five members of the group, including Alexander Ulyanov, the older brother of Lenin. Major Changes: Industrialization Industrialization Under Alexander III industrialization begins to take place in Russia which changes a social structure that used to be composed of nobles and peasants, with a few goofy intelligentsia. Under the leadership of Sergi Witte, the Minister of Communications, a project commenced to link Russia with railways. Witte oversaw the development of heavy metal industries which began to tap the enormous wealth locked in Russian mineral resources. Workers began moving to the cities to work in the new factories. A whole new class of people arises: the workers.
Because they are located in the cities, this group will play a more prominent
role in future unrest (because governments are located in the cities.) We
also have the beginnings of a middle class start to emerge. Opposition Ideologies: Liberal v Populist v Radical Decisive Influence: Failure of
Reform “Grandsons”
Tolstoy 1828-1910 Chekhov 1860-1904
Nicholas II 1894-1917 Conservative Modernizer → Disingenuous Liberal Decisive Influences: Witte, Stolypin Major Changes: Industrialization & Agricultural Reform Major changes take place in Russia. Two ministers: Count
Witte, father of major industrialization in Russia and the construction of
railroads, begins to tie together the state in ways that had never been
done before. After 1905, Minister Stolypin
introduces change in agricultural methods: western style agriculture. He
breaks up communes and makes peasants individual landowners. The Russian
peasant is finally free but he is tied by debt, tradition and vodka. The problem for the Russian peasant, though, is that their
numbers are growing dramatically due to population explosion which makes it
more difficult for them to make a living as a farmer. The Liberal dream of
peasant land ownership is stymied by overpopulation.
Liberal gentry Peasant activists with slavophile scent Nihilists and anarchists have become marxists. 1905 Revolution Liberal Constitution is subverted by the tsar. World War I 1914-1918 Russian Revolution 1917 Tsar is overthrown after the disaster of World War I February Revolution
Liberalism Opposition Parties: Monarchism v Populists
& Marxism
October Revolution
Communism
Monarchism v Populists & Liberals |