Gustave Le Bon, Mass Psychology (1895) Gustave Le Bon (1841-1931), a French social psychologist with strong conservative leanings. examined mass psychology as demonstrated in crowd behavior, a phenomenon of considerable importance in an age of accelerating industrialization and democratization. “The substitution of the unconscious action of crowds for the conscious activity of individuals is one of the principal characteristics of the present age,” Le Bon declared in the preface to The Crowd (1895), excerpts from which follow, Thousands of isolated individuals may acquire at certain moments, and under the influence of certain violent emotions--such, for example, as a great national event— the characteristics of a psychological crowd.--- The most striking peculiarity presented by a psychological crowd is the following: Whoever be the individuals that compose it, however like or unlike be their mode of life, their occupations, their character, or their intelligence, the fact that they have been transformed into a crowd puts them in possession of a sort of collective mind which makes them feel, think, and act in a manner quite different from that in which each individual of them would feel, think, and act were he in state of isolation.... To obtain an understanding of crowds, it is necessary in the first place to call to mind the truth established by modern psychology, that unconscious phenomena play an altogether preponderating part not only in organic life, but also the operations of die intelligence. The conscious life of the mind is of small importance comparison with its unconscious life.... Behind the avowed causes of our acts there undoubtedly lie secret causes that we do nor avow, but behind these secret causes there are many others more secret still which we ourselves ignore. The greater part of our daily actions are the result of hidden motives which escape our observation…. …In the collective mind the intellectual aptitudes of the individuals, and in consequence their individuality, are weakened… and the unconscious qualities obtain the upper hand-- --- In a crowd every sentiment and act is contagious and contagious to such a degree that an individual readily sacrifices his personal interest to the collective interest. This is an aptitude very contrary to his nature, and of which a man is scarcely capable, except when he makes part of a crowd…. …. [An] individual immerged for some length of time in a crowd in action soon finds himself -- in a special state, which much resembles the state of fascination in which the hypnotized individual finds himself in the hands of the hypnotizer. The activity of the brain being paralyzed in the case of the hypnotized subject, the latter becomes the slave of all the unconscious activities of his spinal cord, which the hypnotizer directs at will. The conscious personality has entirely vanished; will and discernment are lost. All feelings and thoughts are bent in the direction determined by the hypnotizer. Such also is approximately the state of the individual forming part of a psychological crowd. He is no longer conscious (if his acts. In his case, as in the case of the hypnotized subject, at the same time that certain faculties are destroyed, others may be brought to a high degree of exaltation. Under the influence of a suggestion, he will undertake the accomplishment of certain acts with irresistible impetuosity.... He is no longer himself, but has become an automaton who has ceased to be guided by his will. Moreover, by the mere fact that he forms part of an organized crowd, a man descends several rungs in the ladder of civilization- Isolated, he may be a cultivated individual; in a crowd, he is a barbarian—that is, a creature acting by instinct. He possesses the spontaneity, the violence, the ferocity, and also the enthusiasm and heroism of primitive beings, whom he further tends to resemble by the facility with which he allows himself to he impressed by words and images—which would be entirely without action on each of the isolated individuals composing the crowd—and to be induced to commit acts contrary to his most obvious interests and his hest-known habits.... In consequence, a crowd perpetually hovering on the borderland of unconsciousness, readily yielding to all suggestions, having all the violence of feeling peculiar to beings who cannot appeal to the influence of reason, deprived of all critical faculty, cannot he other-wise than excessively credulous. The improbable does nor exist for a crowd, and it is necessary to bear this circumstance well in mind to understand the facility with which are created and propagated the most improbable leg-ends and stories ... A crowd thinks in images, and the image itself immediately calls up a series of other images, having no logical connection with the first.... Our reason shows us the incoherence there is in these images, but a crowd is almost blind to this truth, and con-fuses wide the real event what the deforming action of its imagination has superimposed thereon. A crowd scarcely distinguishes between the subjective and the objective. It accepts as real the images evoked in its mind... . Whatever be the ideas suggested to crowds they can only exercise effective influence on condition that they assume a very absolute, uncompromising, and simple shape. They present themselves then in the guise of images, and are only accessible to the masses under this form. These imagelike ideas are not connected by an logical bond of analogy or succession... ... A chain of logical argumentation is totally incomprehensible to crowds, and for this reason it is permissible to say that they do nor reason or that they reason falsely and are not to be influenced by reasoning.... An orator in intimate communication with a crowd can evoke images by which it will be seduced… …. [The] powerlessness of crowds to reason aright prevents them displaying any trace of the critical spirit, prevents them, that is, from being capable of discerning truth from error, or of forming a precise judgment on any matter. Judgments accepted by crowds are merely judgments forced upon them and never judgments adopted after discussion. ... Crowds are to some extent in the position of the sleeper whose reason, suspended for the rime being, allows the arousing in his mind of images of extreme intensity which would quickly be dissipated could they he submitted to the action of reflection. Crowds, being incapable both of reflection and of reasoning, are devoid of die notion of improbability; and it is to be noted that in a general way it is the most improbable things that are the most striking. This is why it happens that it is always the marvellous and legendary side of events that more specially strike crowds... . Crowds being only capable of thinking in images are only to be impressed by images It only images that terrify or attract them and become motives of action. .. How is the imagination of crowds to he impressed?... [The] feat is never to be achieved by attempting to work upon the intelligence or reasoning faculty, that is to say, by way of demonstration... Whatever strikes the imagination of crowds presents itself under the shape of a startling and very clear image, freed from all accessory explanation .. examples in point area great victory, a great miracle, a great crime, or a great hope. Things must be laid before the crowd as a whole, and their genesis must never be indicated- A hundred petty crimes or petty accidents will nor strike the imagination of crowds in the least, whereas a single great crime or a single great accident will profoundly impress them.... When, [the convictions of crowds] are closely examined, whether at epochs marked by fervent religious faith, or by great political upheavals such as those of the last century, it is apparent that they always assume a peculiar form which I cannot better define than by giving it the name of a religious sentiment.. . A person is nor religious solely when he worships a divinity, but when he puts all the resources of his mind, the complete submission of his will, and the whole-souled ardour of fanaticism at the service of a cause or an individual who becomes the goal and guide of his thoughts and actions. Intolerancc and fanaticism are the necessary accompaniments of the religious sentiment.... All founders of religious or political creeds have established them solely because they were successful in inspiring crowds with those fanatical sentiments which have as result that men find their happiness in worship and obedience and are ready to lay down their lives for their idol. This has been the case at all epochs. We have already shown that crowds are not to be influenced by reasoning, and can only comprehend rough-and-ready associations of ideas. The orators who know how to make an impression upon them always appeal in consequence to their sentiments and never to their reason. The laws of logic have no action on crowds. To bring home conviction to crowds it is necessary first of all to thoroughly comprehend the sentiments by which they are animated, to pretend to share these sentiments... As soon as a certain number of living beings are gathered together, whether they be animals or men, they place themselves instinctively under the authority of a chief. In the case of human crowds the chief is often nothing more than a ringleader or agitator, but as such he plays a considerable part. His will is the nucleus around which the opinion of the crowd are grouped and attain to identity. ... A crowd is a servile flock that is incapable of ever doing without a master. The leader has most often started as one of the Itch He has himself been hypnotized by the idea, whose apostle he has since become. It has taken possession of him to such a degree that everything outside it vanishes, and that every contrary opinion appears to him an error or a superstition. An example in point is Robespierre, hypnotized by the philosophical ideas of Rousseau, and employing the methods of die Inquisition to propagate them. The leaders we speak of are more frequently men of action than thinkers.... The multitude is always ready to listen to the strong-willed man, who knows how to impose himself upon it. Men gathered in a crowd lose all force of will, and turn instinctively to the person who possesses the quality they lack . When . . . it is proposed to imbue the mind of a. crowd with ideas and beliefs -- the leaders have recourse to different expedients. The principal of them are three in number and clearly defined—affirmation, repetition, and contagion... Affirmation pure and simple, kept free of all reasoning and all proof, is one of the surest means of making an idea enter the mind of crowds. The concise, an affirmation is, the more destitute of every appearance of proof and demonstration, the more weight it carries… Affirmation, however, has no real influence unless it be constantly repeated, and so far as possible in the same terms. It was Napoleon, I believe, who said that there is only one figure in rhetoric: of serious importance, namely, repetition. The thing affirmed comes by repetition to fix itself in the mind in such a way that it is accepted in the end as a demonstrated truth. The influence of repetition on crowds is comprehensible when the power is seen which it exercises on the most enlightened minds. This power is due to the fact that the repeated statement is embattled in the long run in those profound regions of our unconscious selves in which the motives of our actions are forged. At the end of a certain time we have forgotten who is the author of the repeated assertion, and we finish by believing it. When an affirmation has been sufficiently repeated and there is unanimity in this repetition ... what is called a current of opinion is formed and the powerful mechanism of contagion intervenes. Ideas, sentiments, emotions, and beliefs possess in crowds a contagious power as intense as that of microbes.