Study Sheet on the Scientific
Revolution, The Political Revolution and the Enlightenment The
Scientific Revolution: 1.
Define the scientific method. Pursuit of the truth
about phenomena in nature through observation, then the assertion of a
hypothesis which is then subjected to rigorous and systematic experimentation
to confirm its validity. (deductive and inductive reasoning)
Depicting a landscape
using mathematical proportions led people to think that the whole natural
world could be understood through applications of mathematics and the scientific
method. 3. What was the significance of Copernicus’
heliocentric theory? The earth is not the
center of the universe. Therefore, humans no longer are situated in the
middle of the cosmos, the focus of God's creation. This rebuttal of the
Church's divine hierarchy overturned the church's central place in society. 4. How did Galileo’s discoveries confirm
Copernicus’s theories and change our understanding of the nature of the
heavens? Galileo's discoveries of
imperfections on the moon and the sun destroyed the conception of a dualistic
universe. His use of mathematics to understand physical motion paved the way
for Newton’s theories. 5. What are Newton’s three laws of motion? 1. Something at rest
remains at rest; something in motion stays in motion unless a force acts upon
it. These laws explain all
motion anywhere in the universe. (monist not dualist universe) 6. What is inductive reasoning? The use of
experimentation and observation to draw conclusion about the way nature
works. 7. What is deductive reasoning? Using axioms and then
systematic logic to understand how a problem can be solved. 8. How did Descartes prove the existence of
God? Descartes argued that
because humans could conceive the idea of a perfect being, then God must
exist because the idea of perfection could have come from no other source. 9. How did Spinoza conceive of God? Spinoza conceived of God
as Nature. The universe is God, and God can be understood through systematic
reasoning. Spinoza believed that all phenomena in the universe, including
human actions, were completely determined by the natural chain of cause and
effect. Free will did not exist beyond our ability to use reason to
understand our situation in the universe. (Stoicism) Monistic, determined
universe. Revolution
in Political Thought: 10. What were key features of the emerging
modern state? 1. The government is led
by secular not religious authority 11. According to Machiavelli, why
should a leader avoid morality in his administration of government? Machiavelli argued that
morality would inhibit a leader from doing whatever is necessary to preserve
the survival of the state. Doing the 'right' or 'good' thing might lead to
betrayal and subversion because people are bad and they'll take advantage of any
perceived weakness in you if they can, thus plunging society into civil war.
So the best prince uses reason and his knowledge of statecraft to do whatever
is necessary to maintain the power to keep the peace. 12. What was Hobbes’ vision of human nature? Hobbes wrote at a time
when the first truly capitalist economies had begun to emerge. Success or
failure in this arena depended on the willingness of an individual to pursue
his own self interest with ruthless dedication. Hobbes concluded that people
are innately selfish, grasping, envious, distrustful and treacherous.
Competition and dissension, rather than cooperation, characterize human
relations, and their society will naturally and inevitably disintegrate into
violence. Life in the natural state of man is 'nasty, brutish and short'.
Society in its natural state is in 'a war of all against all'. 13. What is Hobbes’ version of the social
contract? Hobbes believed that power
in a state rightly emanates from the people, not from God, but he did not believe that people have the
ability to govern themselves. Therefore, the people should agree to relinquish
their rights to an absolute monarch who may use force to maintain public
order and protect private property. Once authority has been transferred to
the King, there is no going back even if the people change their minds. 14. Why was an absolute monarchy necessary in
Hobbes’ state? Only a 'philosopher
king' with the intelligence and ability to govern would seek arrangements
which were realistic, rational and realizable. He uses the power of the state
to punish those who threaten the life or property of another, for it is only
when harsh consequences are threatened that people resist their natural
inclination to steal. The king must be allowed to rule absolutely even if he
makes mistakes and becomes abusive, for the alternative even to tyranny is anarchy
and civil war which would be much worse. 15. What was Locke’s vision of human nature? Locke held that
individuals participate in a moral order whose existence can be grasped
through reason. Locke believed that rational people could recognize that
their behavior ought to correspond to the requirements of the moral order.
They are capable of transcending narrow selfishness and respecting the
inherent dignity of others. Locke believed that the human ‘state of nature’
before the creation of the state had been free, rational, and equal. The
problems which emerge within society can be addressed by appealing to the
rational self-interest of the people who agree to be ruled by a government incorporated
to protect their natural rights. 16. What was Locke’s theory of natural rights? Men consent to organize
a civil government and to submit to the will of the majority. Locke rejects
the idea that rulers derive their power from God. He asserts that all
legitimate authority derives from the consent of the majority. The state
exists only to protect the natural rights of the people to their life,
liberty and property. Locke’s theory of natural rights is derived from the
ancient stoical conception of natural law that applies to all human beings. 17. Under what conditions does a citizen have
the right to rebel, according to Locke? A ruling authority that
attempts to govern absolutely and arbitrarily fails to fulfill the purpose
for which it has been established. Under these circumstances, the people have
the moral right to dissolve the government. The state is constitutional. It
follows established rules and sets barriers to arbitrary dictates. The
legislature has greater power than the monarch does. The
Enlightenment 18. How did the philosophes believe they would
inaugurate an enlightened age? The philosophes attacked
medieval otherworldliness, rejected theology as an avenue to truth, denounced
the Christian idea of people’s inherent depravity, and sought to understand
nature and society through reason alone. 19. How did the philosophes apply Newton’s
discovery of universal laws governing motion to the problems of society and
government? The philosophes sought
to expand knowledge of nature and to apply the scientific method to the human
world in order to uncover society’s defects and to achieve appropriate
reforms. 20. What were the deists’ religious beliefs? Deists rejected
miracles, mysteries, prophecies and other fundamentals of revealed
Christianity and sought to fashion a natural religion that accorded with
reason and science. In essence religion consists of a few moral truths that
are ascertainable by the mind. Rituals, miracles and asceticism are merely
priestly accretions; they have nothing to do with God’s moral law. To deists
it seemed reasonable that this magnificently designed universe, operating
with clockwork precision, was created at a point in time by an all-wise
Creator. But once God had set the universe in motion, he had refrained from
interfering with its operations. In addition to an argument for the existence
of God from design, the deists argued that there must have been a first cause
to reality. 21. What was Locke’s theory of epistemology,
the way humans learn? In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690),
Locke argued that humans are not born with innate ideas (the idea of God,
principles of good and evil, and rules of logic, for example) divinely
implanted in their minds as Descartes had maintained. Rather, said Locke, the
human mind is a blank slate (a tabula rasa) upon which sensations derived
from contact with the phenomenal world are imprinted. Knowledge is derived
from experience. 22. How does Locke’s epistemology refute the
Church’s idea of original sin? If there are no
innate ideas, then human beings, contrary to Christian doctrine, are not born
with original sin: we are not depraved by nature. All that individuals are
derives from their particular experiences. If people are provided with a
proper environment and education, they will behave morally and they will
become intelligent and productive citizens. By their proper use of reason,
people could bring their beliefs into harmony with natural law. 23. What reform movements were inaugurated by
the philosophes? How did they believe
a utopian society could be created? Religious toleration,
freedom of the press, public education, the end of officially sanctioned
brutality: torture, capital punishment, the end of war as an officially
accepted method of resolving disputes between nations. |